Why is pigment anthocyanin useful

The color and stability of these pigments are influenced by pH, light, temperature, and structure. In acidic condition, anthocyanins appear as red but turn blue when the pH increases.

Chromatography has been largely applied in extraction, separation, and quantification of anthocyanins. Besides the use of anthocyanidins and anthocyanins as natural dyes, these colored pigments are potential pharmaceutical ingredients that give various beneficial health effects. Scientific studies, such as cell culture studies, animal models, and human clinical trials, show that anthocyanidins and anthocyanins possess antioxidative and antimicrobial activities, improve visual and neurological health, and protect against various non-communicable diseases.

These studies confer the health effects of anthocyanidins and anthocyanins, which are due to their potent antioxidant properties. Different mechanisms and pathways are involved in the protective effects, including free-radical scavenging pathway, cyclooxygenase pathway, mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, and inflammatory cytokines signaling. Therefore, this review focuses on the role of anthocyanidins and anthocyanins as natural food colorants and their nutraceutical properties for health.

When a mineral acid is used it may assist [ ] to the loss of the attached acyl group. Sulfurous water also allows [ ] the reduction of organic solvent and cost extraction. Phytochemical recovery of a good antioxidant from various sources may be achieved by using solvent extraction. The conventional solvent extraction procedure suffers from the drawback of requiring subsequent extraction and cleanup prior analysis. In addition, health and safety risks are associated with the use of large amounts of organic solvents, being on the other hand environmentally unfriendly.

A modern trend toward [ ]: 1 the use of samples smaller in size, volume, or organic solvent content; 2 an extraction with increasing selectivity or specificity; 3 improved recoveries and reproducibility; 4 greater automation facilities. Selected applications of sample preparation techniques on anthocyanin compounds are listed in Table 4 [ — ], an extension of applications previously published by the authors in [ 39 ].

The applications of other novel nonthermal techniques will be the subject of further study. Figure 6 shows a schematic representation of a highly separation and purification methodology based on a macroporus polymeric adsorbent for the determination of anthocyanins in bilberry [ ].

Source: Ampliation from Ref. Schematic representation of a highly separation and purification of anthocyanins from bilberry based on macroporus polymeric adsorbent [ ].

The identification of anthocyanins has a critical role in taxonomic [ ] and adulteration [ ] studies, besides anthocyanins might replay synthetic days. HPLC, especially in the reversed phase, is the most widely used separation technique.

However, even at low pH [ 31 , 32 , 35 , ] some interconversion between the anthocyanin flavylium cationic and carbinol pseudobasic forms occurs. Spectroscopy is the main technique used due to its simplicity and low cost providing very useful qualitative and quantitative information anthocyanins have a specific and intense absorbance band in the range of — nm [ — ], however the difficulty in obtaining reference compounds and the spectral similarities of the anthocyanins represent important drawbacks.

Various MS instruments, as well as the advances in nuclear magnetic resonance NMR have given a fresh impetus to anthocyanin analysis [ 78 , 83 , ]. NMR identification of anthocyanin compounds [ 78 ] offers new promising approaches for analysis of complex phenolic mixtures.

NMR is based primarily on the analysis of 1 H NMR spectra but important structural information can also be provided by 13 C NMR [ ] and, especially for compounds that have many quaternary carbons, by combining homo and heteronuclear 2D and 3D techniques. However, the relatively high capital costs are still an impediment [ ] to their routine use in enforcement laboratories, a fact that must be taken into consideration. The almost universal distribution of anthocyanins in flowering plants makes them also suitable for chemotaxonomic considerations [ ] both at the family and genus level.

Differential anthocyanins profiles may be used [ ] for the detection and adulteration in specific commodities of berry fruit products. In the last few years, special attention has been paid [ ] to the isolation and characterization of compounds that may delay the onset of aging, as occurs with some berry phenolics. The extremely low levels of anthocyanins usually present in biological samples [ 57 , , , ] blood plasma and body tissues possess further challenges to their identification and quantification, together with the lack of commercially available anthocyanin standards.

In last decades, polyphenol chemistry has experienced an explosion of knowledge, being anthocyanins one of the most widely studied groups [ 27 , , ], due to its great potential for practical applications in various fields, contributing in addition this to obtain a better understanding of the chemistry of life. Anthocyanins occur in all plant tissues including leaves, stems, roots, flowers and fruits imparting color.

Anthocyanins are responsible for the red, purple and dark blue colors of many fruits and berries [ 68 , — ]. Anthocyanins have antioxidant activity [ 55 , , — ] preventing radical formation. These nontoxic natural pigments have received considerable attention from such as food, pharmaceutical and nutritional industries due to their potential applications in color-processed food and medicines [ 31 , 33 , , ] which may replace synthetic dyes.

It was only a few decades ago that anthocyanins were regarded as highly degradable compounds and the research studies mainly were focused on their chemical structures, color stability, use as food constituents and changes in foods during storage. Anthocyanins are now recognized as food constituents with potential health benefits [ , ] and research related to these properties has markedly progressed at the molecular level.

Anthocyanins will continue to attract researchers across various disciplines, including those involved in the creation of new flower varieties with novel colors. Research on the health benefits of anthocyanins will provide information [ ] on underlying molecular mechanisms and absorption and metabolism.

Moreover, once these benefits are proven in humans, development of foods and dietary supplements in a capsule form [ , , ] can be accelerated to promote the proven functions, i.

The development of analytical techniques to determine the identity and quantities of anthocyanins in natural products, as well as their effects in vivo and in vitro , is challenging. Up to date, there is no universal extraction procedure suitable for extraction of all plant phenolics.

The choice of an extraction method should maximize pigment recovery [ ] with a minimal amount of adjuncts and minimal degradation or alteration of the natural state. Solvent extraction involving the use of acidic solvents has been the most commonly used method [ 36 , 79 ] for the recovery of diverse compounds found in flavonoids, including anthocyanins. The traditional solid-liquid or liquid-liquid extraction offers good recovery. Nevertheless, they are often described as laborious, time and solvent consuming and prone to errors.

However, in recent years there are trends toward other environmentally and economically friendlier extraction techniques [ 38 , 39 , , , , , ] using a smaller amount of nontoxic solvents and sample sizes, reducing working time and increasing selectivity, specificity, recovery and potential of automation. Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3. Help us write another book on this subject and reach those readers. Login to your personal dashboard for more detailed statistics on your publications.

We are IntechOpen, the world's leading publisher of Open Access books. Built by scientists, for scientists. Our readership spans scientists, professors, researchers, librarians, and students, as well as business professionals. Downloaded: Abstract Anthocyanins are naturally occuring pigments belonging to the group of flavonoids, a subclass of the polyphenol family. Keywords anthocyanins pigments sample preparation extraction. Introduction The progress in the last years in the interdisciplinary fields of chemistry, separation science, biology and pharmacy has boosted the natural product chemistry research [ 1 — 4 ], providing a valuable information about many classes of naturally occurring dietary phytochemicals.

Table 1. Chemical structure Chemically, anthocyanins are glycosylated polyhydroxy or polymethoxy derivatives of 2-phenylbenzopyrilium [ 68 , , ], usually with molecular weights ranging from to medium-size biomolecules and containing two benzyl rings A and B.

Anthocyanidin Abbrev. Table 2. Source: Ref. Antioxidant activity The relationship between diet and health has been known since ancient times and recent studies demonstrated the relevance of many food components in modulating health [ 1 ]. Color Anthocyanins are the pigment compounds responsible for pale yellow, orange, red, magenta, violet and blue colors [ ].

Copigmentation Copigmentation is almost always a variation toward blueness. Intake Anthocyanins are widely ingested by humans, mainly due to consumption [ ] of red fruits like berries and red grapes , vegetables such as red cabbage, red wines, cereals and purple corn. Sample preparation A number of strategies are used [ 37 , , ] for the characterization of phenolic samples in plant materials.

Table 3. Mobile phase: lower aqueous phase. Table 4. Selected applications of extraction techniques applied to anthocyanins. More Print chapter. Create a personalised ads profile. Select personalised ads. Apply market research to generate audience insights. Measure content performance. Develop and improve products. List of Partners vendors. Anthocyanins are a type of flavonoid, a class of compounds with antioxidant effects.

Found naturally in a number of foods, anthocyanins are the pigments that give red, purple, and blue plants their rich coloring. In addition to acting as antioxidants and fighting free radicals, anthocyanins may offer anti-inflammatory , anti-viral, and anti-cancer benefits.

In herbal medicine, anthocyanin-rich substances have long been used to treat a number of conditions involving blood vessel health, including chronic venous insufficiency , high blood pressure , and diabetic retinopathy. They have also been used to treat a number of other conditions, including colds and urinary tract infections. Recent research also suggests that anthocyanins may help fend off major health problems, including heart disease and cancer.

Anthocyanins are found in berries, red onions, kidney beans, pomegranates, grapes including wine , tomatoes, acai, bilberry , chokeberry , elderberry , and tart cherries. Here's a look at several key findings on anthocyanins and their health effects.

Anthocyanins may enhance heart health, according to a report published in Nutrition Reviews. Therefore, regulation of protein secretion from adipocyte or the adipocyte-specific gene expression is one of the most important targets for prevention of obesity. Tsuda and his research team further investigated the potency of anthocyanins, particularly cyanidin and cyanidinglucoside on isolated rat adipocytes for anti-obesity effect.

Gene expression of adiponectin is also upregulated in white adipose tissue of the anthocyanin-treated mice. As previously reported by Tsuda et al. A further examination of gene expression profile in isolated rat adipocytes treated with anthocyanins nM cyanidinglucoside or cyanidin has been performed in vitro [ ].

Within 24 h, a total of genes and genes were upregulated 1. The upregulated genes include lipid metabolism and signal transduction-related genes. However, the altered genes are partially different when comparing the cyanidinglucoside and cyanidin treated groups.

They also report that treatment of adipocytes with cyanidinglucoside and cyanidin upregulated hormone sensitive lipase and enhanced lipolytic activity based on the microarray data. Even though the findings have identified new responsive genes with potentially important functions in adipocytes related to obesity, additional investigation is needed. In vivo adipocytes are not likely to be exposed to the anthocyanidin due to its instability in the culture.

The diet containing a mixture of delphinidin, cyanidin, and pelargonidinO-galactosides. On the contrary, consumption of whole blueberry powder and isolated anthocyanins from blueberry and strawberry yields a mixed result. In addition, high-fat diet mice fed with whole blueberry powder have increased body weight and adiposity relative to high-fat-fed controls [ ].

Inversely, the study shows that the obese mice fed with isolated anthocyanins from the fruits reduced weight gain and body fat, but the differences were not always statistically significant. The authors also tested the purified anthocyanins and blueberry juice for the ability to prevent obesity by preparing a dose of 0. The finding shows that consumption of the purified anthocyanins suppressed the rate of fat deposition. Also, consumption of blueberry juice 2.

Moreover, lower serum leptin concentrations had been consistently observed in the purified blueberry anthocyanins 1. Polyphenolic compounds including anthocyanins possess antimicrobial activity against a wide range of microorganisms, especially in inhibiting the growth of food-borne pathogens [ ]. Anthocyanins exhibit antimicrobial activity through several mechanisms, such as induced cell damage by destroying the cell wall, membrane, and intercellular matrix [ ]. Based on a previous study, maqui berry extracts had antibacterial activity with the highest sensitivity to Aeromonas hydrophilia and Listeria innocua [ ].

These bacteria are commonly associated with refrigerated foods as indicators of pathogenic microorganisms or as spoilage microorganisms [ ]. The antibacterial activity of cranberry extract is not based on its low pH, but it is believed due to the other specific bioactive components, such as anthocyanins and flavonols in cranberry extracts after pH adjusted to 7. Anthocyanin-rich extracts, such as blueberry, raspberry, blackcurrant, and strawberry extracts, inhibit Gram-negative bacteria but not Gram-positive bacteria [ ].

This variation may be due to the different structures of cell wall between Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, in which the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria acts as a preventive barrier against hydrophobic compounds but not on hydrophilic compounds [ ]. These antimicrobial activities of anthocyanin-containing extracts are possibly due to the multiple mechanisms and synergistic effects of various phytochemicals in the extracts, including anthocyanins, weak organic acids, phenolic acids, and their mixtures of different chemical forms [ ].

Thus, the antimicrobial effect of chemically complex compounds instead of solely anthocyanins should be extensively analyzed. Also, anthocyanins in purple, red, and blue-colored fruits and vegetables are the main bioactives in preventing microbial infection by several mechanisms. A neuroprotective agent is a drug or natural compound that prevents the nervous system from secondary injuries. The neuroprotective effects of anthocyanins have been evaluated based on the in vitro and in vivo studies.

Most of the in vitro studies are performed by applying cell cultures, whereas in vivo studies are carried out based on animal models. The neuroprotective findings from selected studies are reported in this review.

An in vitro study [ ] shows the neuroprotective effect of cyanidinglucoside and its aglycone against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress in human neuronal cells SH-SY5Y. Besides the reported findings, the cyanidinglucoside treated mice had brain superoxide level lower than the control 0. The compound also ameliorates ethanol-induced oxidative stress by inhibiting expression of malondialdehyde MDA.

The study concludes that cyanidinglucoside prevents neurotoxicity of ethanol. Based on the previous findings, most of the studies report the neuroprotective effects of cyanidin and its glycosides. Limited study has been done to determine the neuroprotective benefits of other anthocyanidins and anthocyanins. Kim et al. Based on this evidence, anthocyanins obtained from plants have a neuroprotective effect. Anthocyanins are the good antioxidants for preventing or reducing the risk of disease.

Anthocyanins reduce the risk of several diseases that can be shown by direct and indirect pathways. Direct pathway is that the colored compounds directly reduce the risk of several chronic diseases through scavenging free radicals and thus reducing oxidative stress.

The indirect pathways involve downregulation of cell proliferation and apoptosis through reduction of oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation. It is commonly known that anthocyanins are the strong antioxidants that effectively scavenge free radicals.

Anthocyanins reduce the risk of CVD through improving blood lipid profile and biomarkers. A reduction in certain blood biomarkers is known to prevent CVDs. Similar to many other phenolic compounds, anthocyanins inhibit cancer cell proliferation via several pathways. One of the well-known mechanisms of action is the downregulation of cyclooxygenase COX enzyme activity. These enzymes catalyze the formation of leukotrienes, prostacyclins, prostaglandins PGs , and thromboxanes [ ].

Anthocyanins also inhibited tumor growth by blocking activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. Moreover, the most commonly known pathways are cytokine signaling pathways. The analysis of structure-activity relationships among flavonoids suggests that 4-hydroxylations at positions 5, 7, 31, and 41, together with a bond at C2—C3, and the B-ring attaching at the C2 position, seem necessary for the highest expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 MCP-1 [ ].

Free radicals are generated during oxidative stress in the cellular system. Reactive oxygen species ROS and reactive nitrogen species RNS are the typical free radicals that are produced during oxidative stress. ROS is typically produced in cytosol, mitochondrial, peroxisomes, endoplasmic reticulum, plasma membrane, and lysosomes, whereas RNS is produced from amino acid metabolism [ ].

The most commonly known ROS signaling is through the respiratory chain. It involves an electron-transfer reaction pathway, where superoxide dismutase SOD enzyme produces hydrogen peroxide H 2 O 2 in mitochondrial. A similar mechanism of action also occurs in peroxisomes and lysosomes, which involves metabolism of H 2 O 2. Another pathway for ROS generation is the xenobiotic metabolism in the endoplasmic reticulum. The reaction continues and thus produced ROS in the microsomes.

In both the endoplasmic reticulum and plasma membrane, lipid peroxidation occurs via NADPH nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate formation pathways. Therefore, the ROS produced is known to cause cell proliferation in a cellular system. Anthocyanins, as the well-known antioxidants and free radical scavengers, are able to act as reducing agents in the electron-transfer reaction pathway. The antioxidative compounds are able to donate electrons to the free radicals with unpaired electrons [ ].

Anthocyanins also scavenge free radicals through two pathways that have been hypothesized in the past decades. The first pathway is the attack of hydroxyl group s of the B-ring of theanthocyanin structure and the second is the attack of oxonium ion on the C-ring.

Anthocyanins are some of the strongest antioxidants due to the free radical scavenging abilities via both pathways. Literature supports the fact that the number of hydroxyl groups on the B-ring of the anthocyanin structure affects the scavenging activity of the anthocyanin molecules [ ].

The number of hydroxyl groups is positively associated with the scavenging activity. Nonetheless, no study reports on the mechanism of the positive charge at the oxygen atom of the C-ring of the anthocyanin structure for scavenging of free radicals. It has also been hypothesized that the superoxide O 2 o- radical favors the oxonium ion of anthocyanin [ ].

During the development of CVD, oxidative stress causes vascular inflammation. These molecules are the prognostic markers for CVD, also called the plasma lipid profile and antioxidant biomarkers. Oxidative free radicals also initiate inflammatory responses of vascular endothelial cells and upregulate cell adhesion molecules and chemokines. Another double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial also shows consumption of anthocyanins mg anthocyanins twice daily for 12 weeks significantly increased the serum HDL-cholesterol level In addition, a meta-analysis concludes that anthocyanin supplementation to patients with dyslipidemia gave a significant reduction in serum TC, triglyceride, and LDL-cholesterol levels, as well as a significant increased in the HDL-cholesterol level [ ].

COX-1 is essential for formation of thromboxane in blood platelets and maintaining integrity of gastrointestinal epithelium. It is expressed in most of the tissues. It is known for involvment in cell signaling, regulating angiogenesis in endothelial cells, and maintaining tissue homeostasis. The biosynthetic pathway of PGs has been reported by Ricciotti and FitzGerald [ ] in their review article. PGE2 and PGI2 are typically expressed in the vascular smooth muscle cells, platelets, as well as brain and kidney cells.

PGI2 is the key prostanoid that regulates cardiovascular homeostasis [ ]. Oxidative stress increases expression of PGI2 in the vascular cells. COX-2 is overexpressed in benign polyps and adenocarcinomas [ ]. The role and mechanism of COX-2 in cell proliferation and cell death have been clearly explained in a review article [ ].

The authors of this review article explain the roles of COX-2 in the prevention of cancer, which involve cell signaling and regulation of cell proliferation and apoptosis. They also discuss the role of PGE2 in inhibiting apoptosis in several in vitro models. Mitogen-activated protein kinases MAPKs are the protein kinases involved in cell survival, such as cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, and apoptosis [ ].

Anthocyanin-rich pomegranate extract also had a positive effect on UV-B-mediated phosphorylation of MAPKs pathway in normal human epidermal keratinocytes. Anthocyanin extract obtained from Vitis coignetiae Pulliat has anti-tumor activity. Chronic inflammation is linked to progression of a disease that is characterized by excessive production of cytokines, changes in the pattern of cellular signaling, and infiltration of inflammatory cells.

Similar to most of the flavonoids, anthocyanins reduce inflammation through several mechanisms to attenuate and to prevent inflammatory responses. During the inflammation process, these cytokines activate hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal that acts on the release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex.

Anthocyanins are colored pigments in plants that possess several health benefits. These colored pigments appear red in acidic condition and show a blue hue in alkaline solution. Acylated and copigmentated anthocyanidins have higher heat stability, thus maintain the structure even in different pH conditions.

Anthocyanins are the value-added colorants that can be used for preventing several diseases, including CVDs, cancers, diabetes, some metabolic diseases, and microbial infection.

These compounds also improve visual ability and have neuroprotective effect. Several mechanisms of action are reported for the anthocyanidins and anthocyanins in prevention of these diseases. In a nutshell, free-radical scavenging, changes in blood biomarkers, COX and MAPKs pathways, as well as inflammatory cytokines signaling are the typical mechanisms of action of these colored pigments in prevention of diseases.

National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. Journal List Food Nutr Res v. Food Nutr Res. Published online Aug Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Received Apr 10; Accepted Jul This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Introduction Anthocyanins are blue, red, or purple pigments found in plants, especially flowers, fruits, and tubers.

Open in a separate window. Figure 1. Types of anthocyanin in plants Anthocyanin is one of the subclasses of phenolic phytochemicals. Figure 2. Figure 3. Color and stability of anthocyanin pigments Stability of anthocyanin color based on pH Stability of anthocyanins is dependent on the type of anthocyanin pigment, copigments, light, temperature, pH, metal ions, enzymes, oxygen, and antioxidants [ 15 ].

Effect of copigmentation and temperature on color change Copigmentation and temperature are known to influence the color change of anthocyanins in a solution in addition to different pH conditions. Anthocyanin pigments as food colorants and additives The use of natural colorant and additives in processed foods and beverages is important for increasing consumer acceptability of these products.

Solubility of anthocyanin pigments Anthocyanins occur as flavylium ions in grapes and wines. Extraction and identification of anthocyanins The use of organic solvents such as methanol and ethanol to extract anthocyanin pigments causes a toxicity issue. Anthocyanins and anthocyanidin in plants Anthocyanins are found abundant in plants, including red-purplish or red to blue-colored fruits, leaves, flowers, roots, and grains.

Table 1. Anthocyanins and anthocyanidins in fruit, vegetables, and grains. Types of anthocyanin and anthocyanidin in fruit Acai berry Euterpe oleracea Martius — whole fruit [ 43 ] cyaglu, cyanrut, delgal, delglu, delrut, peoglu Berry Berberis lycium Royle — whole fruit [ 44 ] cya-3,5-dihex, cyagal, cyaglu, cyalat, cyarut, delglu, mal-3,5-dihex, pel-3,5-diglu, pelpentoxilhex, pelrut, pel-hex, peorut Bilberry Vaccinium myrtillus L.

Stuntz] — whole fruit [ 49 ] cyaglu, cyasam, cya-diglu, cya-sam-glu, delglu, del-3,5-diglu, delsam, delsamglu Nitratia Nitraria tangutorun Bobr. Mollar de Elche — edible flesh [ 52 ] cya-3,5-diglu, cyaglu, cya-pen, del-3,5-di-glu, delglu, pel-3,5-di-glu, pelglu Raspberry Rubus idaeus L.

Types of anthocyanin and anthocyanidin in vegetables and grains Black carrots Daucus carota ssp. Merrill] [ 56 ] cyagal, cyaglu, delglu, peoglu. Purple corn Zea mays L. Heugjinju [ 60 ] cya, cyaglu, peoglu Transgenic purple tomato Solanum lycopersicum L.

Potential uses of anthocyanin pigments Anthocyanins extracted from plants have been used as food additives. Nutraceutical and pharmaceutical effects of anthocyanins Anthocyanin is one of the bioactive components as nutraceutical and traditional medicine. Table 2. Prevention of chronic diseases using plant anthocyanins. Table 3. Other health benefits of plant anthocyanins. Health benefits of anthocyanins References Visual health Improved visual function in patients with normal tension glaucoma [ 90 ] Prevented impairment of photoreceptor cell function during retinal inflammation [ 91 ] Decreased lens opacity together with the decreased MDA level [ 92 ] Suppressed cell death of HLE-B3 lens epithelial cell line under H 2 O 2 -induced oxidative stress [ 93 ] Prevented retinal degeneration induced by N-methyl-N-nitrosourea [ 94 ] Increased ocular blood flows but no significant changes on intraocular pressure [ 95 ] Anti-obesity Improved weight gain and lipid profile on obese rats.

Antioxidants The health and therapeutic effects of anthocyanin are mainly contributed by its antioxidative activities. Angiogenesis and development of diseases Endothelial cells are the main cells involved in the angiogenesis process. Cardiovascular health Epidemiological studies show the relationships between anthocyanin-rich foods and CVDs, as well as the relationship between total anthocyanin intake and risk of developing these cardiovascular-related diseases.

Anticancer Anthocyanins have been extensively studied for their anticancer properties, as well as antiangiogenesis, based on in vitro and cell culture studies, and animal models. Antidiabetes The antidiabetic effect of anthocyanins from plants has been widely studied. Visual health Anthocyanin pigments are important nutraceuticals in maintaining good vision. Anti-obesity effect Anthocyanidin and anthocyanin pigments possess anti-obesity properties.

Antimicrobial Polyphenolic compounds including anthocyanins possess antimicrobial activity against a wide range of microorganisms, especially in inhibiting the growth of food-borne pathogens [ ]. Mechanisms of action in disease prevention Anthocyanins are the good antioxidants for preventing or reducing the risk of disease. Free-radical scavenging pathway Free radicals are generated during oxidative stress in the cellular system.

Cyclooxygenase COX pathway COX-1 is essential for formation of thromboxane in blood platelets and maintaining integrity of gastrointestinal epithelium. Mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway Mitogen-activated protein kinases MAPKs are the protein kinases involved in cell survival, such as cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, and apoptosis [ ].

Inflammatory cytokines signaling Chronic inflammation is linked to progression of a disease that is characterized by excessive production of cytokines, changes in the pattern of cellular signaling, and infiltration of inflammatory cells.

Conclusions Anthocyanins are colored pigments in plants that possess several health benefits. Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. The effect of light, temperature, pH and species on stability of anthocyanin pigments in four Berberis species.

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